An Overview of the EU and the Schengen Area’s Border-Related Policies introduced in Response to the Coronavirus Pandemic in 2020


Author:
Affiliation:

Lukas Feddern

University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf

Rachel Musetti

Emory University

Amalia Gradie

Emory University

Foteini Kalantzi

University of Oxford

Last Updated:

November 2, 2020



Throughout 2020, the European Union (EU), both the Schengen Area and its member-state countries instituted a variety of border closure policies, ranging from partial closureA new policy which restricts access of specific groups of people, whether by certain nationalities, travel histories; those entering through a specified land, sea or air border; OR all land borders closed OR all air borders closed OR all sea borders closed (but not all three) (of which 251 were instituted by EU member-states, and 219 were implemented by Schengen member-states), to complete closurea new policy in which all newcomers are banned from all ports of entry, AIR, LAND, and SEA — with limited exceptions, including citizens, nationals from a specific country or set of up to 10 countries, and/or essential reasons (of which 42 were implemented by EU member-states, and 40 by Schengen countries). The purpose of this document, sourced from the COVID Border Accountability Project (COBAP) database, is to describe the international border policies introduced at the EU level versus the individual member-state level between Jan to Dec 2020. For the global scope of COBAP coding decisions relevant to the European context, see Feddern’s report (2021) here.

Borders Context

The EU is an economic and political union of 27 countries, referred to as member-states. The The Schengen Area operates in conjunction with the EU as a zone that allows for the unrestricted movement of people across international borders. Twenty-two countries are in both the EU and Schengen Area: Austria, Belgium, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Sweden. Countries that belong to the EU but are not a part of the Schengen Area are Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Ireland, and Romania. These countries guarantee free movement of EU and EEA citizens but conduct border checks. Schengen Area countries that are not in the EU include Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein. Each country within these larger groups is responsible for its own international travel policy and can regulate borders when necessary, with the exception of Liechtenstein, which follows Switzerland’s border closure policies. Switzerland is a unique case because it has agreed to adopt certain EU provisions so that it can participate in the single market but is not an official member-state of the EEA or the EU.

EU member-states can choose to adopt recommendations made by the executive branch of the EU, the European Commission, and they can introduce their own restrictions at the national level. The Schengen Area governs similarly, facilitating open internal borders amongst its member-states with an eye to public safety during the pandemic; member-states of the Schengen Area are also free to adopt their own border restrictions. The COBAP database records both Schengen-level policies (restrictions on non-Schengen countries) and policies introduced at the levels of the national member-states.

Schengen-level border policies are governed by the Schengen Border Code (SBC). The implementation of internal border control is permitted under Article 25 et. seq. of the SBC. The provision grants member states the right to re-introduce border controls in exceptional circumstances. The reintroduction of border controls necessitates a “threat to public policy or internal security” (Art. 25) and can only be implemented for a period of thirty days for “a limited period of up to 30 days or for the foreseeable duration of the serious threat if its duration exceeds 30 days” (Art. 25).

The outbreak of the pandemic had a tremendous impact on the EU institutional framework for controlling the internal borders between member-states. Designed as one of the world’s most significant zones for visa-free travel, the institutions faltered during the 2015-16 migration crisis to which several countries invoked Article 25 of the SBC, introducing border checks. Similarly, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, several countries closed their borders or re-established travel restrictions in the face of the developing pandemic crisis. In March 2020, 18 EU countries within the Schengen Area introduced interior border controls, then temporarily removed them in the summer, sparking intense public debate. Concerns about the repercussions of the single market and the lives of Schengen area citizens were raised.

One year later, the EU is facing the same debate. Due to new coronavirus variants, some EU countries are again introducing internal border controls, again challenging the cohesion and functionality of the Schengen Area. In June 2020, EU Members of Parliament (MEPs) expressed their concern in an adopted resolution, where it was stressed that a swift and coordinated return to a fully functional Schengen Area was of utmost importance to safeguard freedom of movement, and to ensure the EU’s economic recovery after the pandemic. The fear is that this “state of exception” has set a precedent, potentially eroding the ideal of a borderless Union.

EU/Schengen Border Responses to the Pandemic

Nine countries that are both EU member-states and Schengen member-states responded to the coronavirus pandemic in the early days by closing borders to those outside the EU and Schengen Area, while allowing travel within those areas to remain largely open. Austria, Czechia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal, Switzerland, Bulgaria, Croatia, Ireland, Spain and Romania all instituted partial bans of some form in their initial response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The majority (17) of EU and Schengen Area member-states implemented complete closures; these included Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Cyprus.

In an effort to honor the “Re-Open EU” initiative, when the subsequent waves of the pandemic that occurred in the fall, EU member-states in Schengen chose to enter national-internal lockdowns such as through curfews but allowed borders to remain open. With Re-Open EU, the EU recommended a coherent framework for external and internal border policies for all EU+ countries — that is, all EU and Schengen countries, as well as the Vatican, Andora, San Marino, Monaco, and Liechtenstein.

By EU member-states in Schengen:

Austria

Austria’s travel responses to the coronavirus pandemic were primarily partial closures targeted at travelers from specific countries. Austria began restricting travel from 10-Mar, stating that flights landing in Austria from China, South Korea, Iran, Italy, Switzerland, France, Spain, the United Kingdom (UK), the Netherlands, Russia, and Ukraine were prohibited. The government prohibited flights from Italy on 11-Mar. On 16-Mar, following an ordinance issued several days prior, Austria prohibited flights from Switzerland, France, and Spain. On 15-Mar, Austria issued an ordinance stating that a partial ban on international flights coming from SARS-CoV-2 risk areas of the UK, Ukraine, Russia, and the Netherlands “will come into force after 17Mar 2020.”

Austria complied with the European Commission’s recommendation from 17-Mar to restrict entry into the EU from third countries. It gradually lifted the ban starting on 15-Jun.

On 4-Jun, Austria lifted its coronavirus-related border closures for the neighboring countries of Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Slovenia, Hungary, Slovakia, and Czechia. On 30-Jun, the Austrian government lifted travel restrictions for 31 European countries including all EU, and Schengen member states, as well as Andorra, Vatican City, Monaco, and San Marino. The months following brought three additional lockdowns and many smaller restrictions, though they related to curfews and stay-at-home orders rather than border closures.

When cases began rising in the fall and winter months, Austria began to entact lockdowns once again, but they were focused internally. The first of the two lockdowns was from 3-Nov until 6-Dec, and consisted of internal curfews and the closure of businesses. Following the winter holidays, Austria initiated a second internal lockdown on 26-Dec, which lasted through the new year.

Finally, responding to virus mutations, Austria porhibited travel from the United Kingdom on 22-Dec.

Belgium

Belgium’s approach to the coronavirus pandemic was primarily an early complete closure followed by internal restrictions. As early as 18-Mar, Belgium closed its borders to nonessential travel. In line with EU guidelines, Belgium lifted the ban for travelers from the EU and the Schengen Area on 15-Jun.

In the fall, cases began to rise again throughout Europe, many of which occurred in Belgium. Citing high case numbers and the Re-Open EU initiative, Belgium went into an internal lockdown on 2-Nov that lasted until 13-Dec.

Similar to other EU+ countries, Belgium prohibited entry from the United Kingdom at the end of December.

Czechia

On 3-Feb, Czechia instituted a partial closure banning flights arriving from China, which ended on 21-Apr. By 10-Feb, Czechia had ceased accepting visa applications from China, closing their application centers.

Czechia introduced partial closures on 5-Mar, and 14-Mar, restricting travel for passengers from Austria, Belgium, China (People's Rep.), Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Iran, Italy, Japan, Korea (Rep.), Netherlands, Norway, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States. This did not limit travel for those transiting through these nations. Those with Czechia long-stay visas and European Health Insurance Cards issued by Czechia were exempt from the ban, as were nationals and residents of the country.

The Czech government replaced these targeted bans by a complete closure, which took effect on 16-Mar. The resolution prohibited the entry of all travelers except Czech citizens and permanent residents. On 18-May, Czechia loosened its complete closure including exceptions for workers, residents’ spouses, and students, among others. It also exempted nationals under 18 years of age of Czechia or another EU Member State, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, or the UK as well as spouses of nationals of these countries. The policy was lifted on 05-Jun - in line with the European Union’s Re-open EU initiative.

In the fall, Czechia went into a State of Emergency that began on 5-Oct in order to slow the number of cases internally. The State of Emergency was then extended until 20-November and extended once again until 12-Dec. The State of Emergencies were attempts to slow the coronavirus without closing external borders. Although no new border checks were introduced, tourism was prohibited during the State of Emergency.

Denmark

Denmark quickly worked to contain the spread of coronavirus, instituting a complete closure from 14-Mar to 25-May that included exceptions for citizens, and permanent residents. Denmark amended the policy on 25-May, allowing travel for vocational purposes. The amendment further allowed residents of Germany, Finland, Iceland, Sweden, and Norway to enter the country provided they own property in Denmark, or have “girlfriends, fiancés [, or] grandparents” in Denmark. On 15-Jun, the Danish government allowed vocational travel from Germany, Iceland, and Norway. On 27-Jun, Denmark replaced its complete closure and instituted a partial, which allowed entry based on recommendations by the government’s infectious disease institute. Notably, the policy categorized travelers according to country of residence. The policy continued to prohibit entry from travelers outside the EU and Schengen area until 02-July.

On 02-Jul, the government extended the recommendation system applied to EU and Schengen countries to all EU+ countries. Additionally, Denmark allowed travel from the following third countries: Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, South Korea and Thailand. Thus, Denmark largely followed the EU recommendation to gradually lift travel restrictions for third countries.

Internal restrictions varied markedly during the second half of 2020. The partial closure was amended weekly as case numbers changed across Europe. On 02-Jul, Swedish and Portuguese residents were prohibited from entering Denmark for touristic purposes. During the second half of July, Luxembourg and Bulgaria were added to the list of countries of residence whence tourists were prohibited. In August, Denmark lifted restrictions for Swedish and Portuguese residents. Conversely, the government restricted travel for Spanish (from 08/08/20), French (from 08/29/20), Belgian (from 08/22/20), Croatian (from 08/29/20), Bulgarian (until 08/22/20), and Romanian (from 08/01/20) residents. In September, restrictions were added for Portuguese, Dutch, Swiss, Czech, Andorran, Maltese, Monacan, Hungarian, and Austrian residents, as well as residents from Iceland, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. The Danish government added further internal restrictions in October, temporarily restricting access for residents from everywhere but Norway, Estonia and Finland, and hence effectively implementing a complete closure. In the following month, Denmark further limited the EU and Schengen countries from where access was permitted to Finland (until 11/26/21). In December, internal recreational travel to Denmark from outside the Commonwealth (Denmark, Faroe islands, and Greenland) was prohibited, bar from the Holy See.

Estonia

On 17-Mar Estonia issued a complete closure on all travel into the country, exempting only those whose parents or grandparents, children or grandchildren are Estonian citizens or hold an Estonian ID card and present no symptoms of COVID-19. On the same date, the Estonian government suspended the acceptance of applications for Schengen visas and long-stay visas to Estonia. Exceptions to the ban were applications on a humanitarian basis, transportation of raw materials or goods, medical or other essential services, and parents, childrens, and spouses of Estonian citizens. On 15-May, Estonia issued a policy allowing citizens and permanent residents of Latvia and Lithuania to enter the country. On 1-Jun, Estonia reopened its borders to the rest of the EU countries and the Schengen area. Throughout 2021, the government did not reimpose internal closures.

On 6-Jul, Estonia followed the EU recommendation on gradually re-opening its borders to travelers from third countries. Besides allowing travel from EU and Schengen countries, Estonia thus permitted residents from Algeria, Australia, Canada, Georgia, Japan, Montenegro, Morocco, New Zealand, Rwanda, Serbia, South Korea, Thailand, Tunisia, and Uruguay to travel to Estonia. On 31-Jul, residents from Algeria, Montenegro, and Serbia were removed from that list. On 17-Aug, the Estonian government added Uruguay to the list of traveler’s permitted countries of residence. From 23-Oct until 18-Dec, Estonia removed Canada, Georgia, and Tunisia, and added Singapore to the list. On 18-Dec, the government removed Uruguay from the list.

Finland

Finland responded promptly to news of the spread of COVID-19 by instating a complete closure on 19-Mar and ending on 14-May. This ban allowed only nationals of Finland and their family members, passengers with a residence permit issued by Finland, residents of Finland with a British passport, and residents of Finland who are nationals of EU or Schengen countries and their family members. On 14-May, the Finish government relaxed measures by allowing workers to cross the border. On 15-Jun, Finland further relaxed its complete closure to allow travel from Norway, Denmark, Iceland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.

Finland shifted their complete closure to a partial closure on 13-Jul by expanding the list of countries from which they permitted travel to also include the Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, Austria, Greece, Liechtenstein, Malta, Germany, Slovakia, Switzerland, and Hungary. On 27-Jul, the government re-imposed restrictions on travel from Austria, Slovenia, and Switzerland while allowing travel from South Korea, Georgia, Japan, Rwanda, Thailand, Tunisia, Uruguay, and New Zealand. On 10-Aug, a partial closure on travel from the Netherlands, Belgium, and Andorra went into effect. On 24-Aug, Finland further restricted the countries allowed to enter its borders, removing Iceland, Greece, Malta, Norway, Germany, Denmark, and Japan from its exceptions.

On 12-Oct, Finland further restricted the number of countries from which travel was allowed, thus effectively qualifying its border policy as a complete closure. Only those traveling from Australia, Japan, New Zealand, Rwanda, South Korea, Thailand, Uruguay, and the Vatican were allowed to enter the country for non-essential reasons. On 9-Nov, the only countries Finland’s complete closure made exceptions for inbound non-essential travel were Vatican City, Australia, South Korea, Japan, Singapore, Thailand, Uruguay, and New Zealand. However, Uruguay was removed from the list on Nov-23.

France

On 17-Mar, France issued a complete closure of the country, allowing only citizens, nationals, and their families of the EU, Schengen Area, and the UK to enter until 16-Apr, which was extended until 11-May. On 6-May, France restricted all flights from non-EU+ countries. The next day, on 16-Jun, France again issued a partial closure until 9-Nov, in which only citizens, nationals, and their families of the EU+ Area could enter.

On 10-Nov, the list of exempt countries was expanded to include Australia, Japan, Monaco, New Zealand, Rwanda, San Marino, South Korea, Singapore, Thailand and the UK. For 48 hours beginning on 20-Dec, the UK was removed from this list, and those traveling from the UK were not allowed to enter France. On 23-Dec, France instituted another partial closure, restricting travel except for citizens and residents of the EU, Schengen Area, Andorra, Australia, Vatican City, Japan, Monaco, New Zealand, Rwanda, San Marino, South Korea, Singapore, Thailand, and the UK.

Germany

On 16-Mar, Germany issued a partial closure, limiting non-essential travel from Austria, Denmark, France, Luxembourg, and Switzerland. The policy was extended to air travel from the aforementioned countries in addition to Spain and Italy. In line with the EU recommendation, Germany prohibited all entries from non-EU+ countries on 17-Mar. Moreover, the German Ministry of Health prohibited all flights from Iran on 31-Mar. In May, Germany reallowed entry from Luxembourg, Italy, and Spain.

On 15-Jun, Germany’s EU+ borders opened and remained opened, following the EU’s declaration to end internal border restrictions. Entry restrictions from third countries were determined based on the EU’s list of countries for which travel restrictions were to be gradually lifted.

Beginning on 2-Nov, Germany went into a self-proclaimed “soft” lockdown for two weeks, which regulated congregations, and restricted freedom of movement in some states. The internal lockdown was extended until January.

On 22-Dec the German government restricted air and sea travel from the UK following the spread of the alpha variant.

Greece

Greece initially responded to the emergence of COVID-19 in Europe by imposing a partial closure that barred Italian passengers from entering the country. On 24-Mar, Greece restricted travel to third countries, with an exception for nationals and residents of EU and Schengen member-states and their family members (including nationals of Greece and their family members). This policy made exceptions for healthcare professionals and those in possession of a UK passport, UK resident holders, and their family members. Greece instituted a partial closure on the same date, suspending flights from Italy, Spain, Turkey, and the UK.

On 29-Apr, Greece expanded its partial closure to suspend flights from Germany and the Netherlands. On 15-May, Greece added Albania and North Macedonia to the countries from which flights were banned by the partial closure. On 30-Jun, the partial closure was revised so that only flights from Turkey, Sweden, and the UK were barred from entering Greece. On 16-Jul, Greece announced it would allow passengers to enter Greece beginning 31-Jul and that flights from Sweden would be allowed beginning 19-Jul. On 31-Jul, Greece added nationals and residents of Algeria, Australia, Canada, Georgia, Japan, Korea (Rep.), Montenegro, Morocco, New Zealand, Rwanda, Thailand, Tunisia, and Uruguay to the listed exceptions to its partial closure, which was extended to 14-Aug. The partial closure targeting flights from Turkey was also extended to 15-Aug.

On 20-Nov, Greece closed its land border with Albania at the Krystallopigi crossing.

Hungary

As early as 2-Mar, Hungary took action in response to fears of COVID-19 spread, announcing that it would no longer accept refugees, mentioning the spread of COVID-19 from Pakistan, Iran, or Afghanistan specifically.

On 10-Mar, Hungary announced that Iranians in possession of Hungarian visas that had not been stamped yet would not be allowed to enter the country. The next day (11-Mar), Hungary instated a partial closure on arrivals from China, Italy, South Korea, and Iran. On 13-Mar, this partial closure was extended to include travel from Israel.

Beginning on 17-Mar, Hungary instituted a complete closure, with exceptions only for Hungarian citizens.

On 26-Mar, Hungary lifted its restriction on land borders shared with Romania for commuters. On 24-Apr, land borders were opened between Serbia and Hungary for commuters. On 14-May, Hungary lifted restrictions for citizens of Czechia, Poland, South Korea, Germany, Austria, Slovakia, and Japan for the purpose of business, the first exceptions to its complete closure. Land borders to Austria were opened on 14-May, ending the partial closure of the Austrian land border crossing into Hungary. On 29-May, Hungary lifted its restrictions on Slovenia. On 30-Jun, the government lifted all remaining air travel bans.

When cases started to rise again in the fall, Hungary instituted a complete closure on 1-Sep, which lasted through 31-Oct. The government extended the complete closure until 2021.

Italy

On 17-Mar, Italy instituted a complete closure with exceptions for nationals and residents of Italy, as well as those traveling on business, for health reasons, or emergencies. On 3-Jun, Italy began making exceptions to the complete closure and thus effectively turning it into a partial closure, allowing passengers arriving from EU+ countries. On 1-Jul, Italy extended the exceptions to its closure, allowing passengers arriving from Algeria, Australia, Canada, Georgia, Japan, South Korea (Rep.), Montenegro, Morocco, New Zealand, Rwanda, Serbia, Thailand, Tunisia and Uruguay to enter the country. Shortly after, Italy imposed a partial closure prohibiting anyone from entering the country who had transited through or been in Armenia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Chile, Dominican Rep., Kosovo (Rep.), Kuwait, Moldova (Rep.), Montenegro, North Macedonia (Rep.), Oman, Panama, Peru, or Serbia in the previous 14 days.

Honoring the pledge to the rest of the EU outlined in the Re-Open EU initiative, issued a curfew and other internal measures to curb coronavirus cases on 4-Nov, but did not close its internal borders.

Latvia

On 17-Mar, Latvia issued a complete closure, with an exception for citizens and residents, until 14-Apr. This closure was extended until 12-May and extended once more until midnight on 9-Jun, though on 15-May, travel within the Baltic States was resumed, and citizens and residents of Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia could travel freely within the area through land, air, and sea crossings. On 21-May, travel resumed within the EU, Iceland, Lichtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland. Beginning on 9-Jun and for the remainder of the year, Latvia reassessed its air policies weekly, deciding based on the number of cases in each country whether or not flights were allowed to and from this country.

In the fall, Latvia entered a four-week internal lockdown from 9-Nov to 7-Dec. Latvia did not close its borders, but did close most businesses to disincentivize travel.

Lithuania

Lithuania instituted a complete closure exempting only nationals and residents of Lithuania on 15-Mar. On 3-Apr, Lithuania barred land entry for cars traveling from Belarus and Russia, and later elevated the policy to a complete closure that began on 15-Mar. On 15-May, Lithuania relaxed the complete closure by allowing travel from fellow Baltic States of Latvia and Estonia. On 27-May, Lithuania announced its intention to further relax its complete closure, allowing citizens of the countries of the European Economic Area, the Swiss Confederation and of the UK of Great Britain and Northern Ireland into Lithuania as long as cases of COVID-19 did not exceed 25 cases/100,000 population for the past 14 days.

On 13-Jul, Lithuania allowed exceptions to its complete closure for passengers from Hungary, Malta, Finland, Estonia, Cyprus, Latvia, Norway, Greece, Slovakia, Italy, Netherlands, Denmark, Liechtenstein, Germany, Belgium, Poland, Slovenia, Spain, Austria, Switzerland, France, UK, Iceland, Czech Republic, Croatia.

On 7-Nov, Lithuania entered an internal lockdown that closed businesses and schools across the nation. On 16-Dec, Lithuania tightened the measures to restrict non-essential movement, which lasted through the new year.

Luxembourg

Luxembourg’s approach to the coronavirus pandemic differed from other EU and Schengen Area countries, by initially avoiding border closures, citing that 70 percent of Luxembourg’s medical workers are German, Belgian, or French residents. While Luxembourg never closed its internal borders, Germany, France, and Belgium implemented border controls, which remained in place until 15-Jun.

Beginning on 1-Jul and ending on 15-Sep, Luxembourg issued a partial, allowing only citizens, nationals, or residents from the EU, the Schengen Area, Australia, Canada, China, Georgia, Japan, Morocco, New Zealand, Rwanda, South Korea, Thailand, Tunisia, the UK, and Uruguay to enter the country. On 8-Aug, Luxembourg enacted a partial, restricting anyone from Algeria to enter the country via land, sea, or air crossings. On 14-Aug, Luxembourg issued another partial closure, prohibiting anyone from Morocco to enter the country via land, or air crossings. On 26-Oct, Luxembourg issued a curfew to slow the spread of coronavirus.

Responding to the spread of virus variants, Luxembourg prohibited flights from the United Kingdom between 21-Dec and 23-Dec.

Malta

On 11-Mar, Malta issued a partial closure, restricting air or sea travel from France, Italy, Spain, Switzerland and Germany. Beginning 20-Mar, no flights were allowed to land in Malta. Malta reopened borders on 1-Jul to its corridor countries, which include the EU, the Schengen Area, Andorra, Australia, Canada, China, Vatican City, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Jordan, Lebanon, Macau, Monaco, Morocco, New Zealand, Rwanda, San Marino, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, Uruguay, and the UK. Following the opening of Malta, the country instituted a “Green, Amber or Red list” to dictate which countries would be allowed to operate flights into Malta depending on infection rates.

From 14-Jul to 13-Aug, Malta issued a complete closure with exemptions for nationals, residents, and citizens of the EU, the Schengen Area, Andorra, Australia, Canada, China, Vatican City, Indonesia, Japan, Jordan, Lebanon, Monaco, Morocco, New Zealand, Rwanda, San Marino, South Korea, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, UK, or Uruguay. On 22-Dec, Malta issued a partial closure, prohibiting entry from the UK.

Netherlands

On 13-Mar, the Netherlands first responded to the pandemic by prohibiting air travel from countries with confirmed cases, which at the time were Italy, China, South Korea and Iran. On 18-Mar, the Netherlands followed the EU recommendation to combat the spread of COVID-19 by instituting a partial closure barring all incoming travel from non-EU+ countries. The closure made an exception for citizens of EU member-states, Schengen states, and the UK and those whose work served one of ten essential functions such as medical services and goods transport. It was scheduled to last 30 days, but on 17-Apr the closure was extended to 15-May, adding that flights from Austria, China, Hong Kong, Iran, Italy, South Korea and Spain were suspended. The closure was extended again in May to 15-Jun. On 1-Jul, the Netherlands relaxed its closure by allowing permanent residents of Algeria, Australia, Canada, Georgia, Japan, Montenegro, Morocco, New Zealand, Rwanda, Serbia, South Korea, Thailand, Tunisia and Uruguay to enter the country.

On 14-Oct, the Netherlands entered a partial lockdown that discouraged travel, but only placed internal restrictions. The lockdown lasted until 27-Oct. On 19-Nov, the Netherlands issued another partial lockdown that mimicked the internal lockdown from the month prior.

Poland

On 15-Mar, Poland issued a complete closure, prohibiting anyone other than citizens, permanent residents, and their family members from entering the country. On 13-Jun, Poland restored full border traffic with the EU.

Between 18-Sept and 29-Sept, Poland prohibited air travel through a partial closure, revoking landing privileges for flights from Belize, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Brazil, Bahrain, Spain, Israel, Qatar, Kuwait, Libya, Argentina, Chile, France, Guatemala, Honduras, Iraq, Colombia, Costa Rica, Lebanon, Maldives, Namibia, Moldova, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Cape Verde, United States of America, Bolivia, and the Bahamas. A month late, from 28-Oct to 10-Nov, Poland again restricted air traffic through a partial closure from Belize, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Nepal, Georgia, Jordan, Bahrain, Morocco, Israel, Qatar, Kuwait, Libya, United Arab Emirates, Albania, Argentina, Chile, Honduras, Iraq, Colombia, Costa Rica, Lebanon, North Macedonia, Maldives, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Tunisia, Cape Verde, United States of America, Oman, and the Bahamas.

Portugal

Portugal issued its first international response to the pandemic on 11-Mar when it prohibited air travel to and from Italy. A few days later, on 16-Mar, Portugal closed all land crossings, and kept them closed until 1-Jul. On 18-Mar, Portugal limited air travel with countries outside of the EU, Schengen Area, Portuguese speaking countries, the UK, USA, Canada, Venezuela, and South Africa.

On 1-Jul, Portugal updated this policy to include flights from the EU, Schengen Area, Portuguese speaking countries, UK, and the United States of America, as well as Algeria, Canada, South Korea, Morocco, Tunisia, and China - thus, easing restrictions from Algeria, South Korea, Morocco, Tunisia, and China, and now restricting South Africa & Venezuela.

In November, Portugal issued two-week internal lockdowns that prohibited travel within the country, but did not close international borders.

Slovakia

On 9-Mar, Slovakia banned all flights to and from Italy. On 12-Mar, Slovakia expanded its policy, implementing a complete closure with exceptions for workers and nationals. From 28-May to 10-Jun, a partial closure was placed on all air travel, as no international flights were allowed to land within the country.

From 6-Jun to 20-Jul, a partial closure on air travel remained, with exceptions for flights from Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czechia, Montenegro, Denmark, Estonia, the Faroe Islands, Finland, the Hellenic Republic, Croatia, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Latvia, Hungary, Malta, Monaco, Germany, Norway, Poland, Austria, Slovenia, and Switzerland. On 20-Jul, the list of exceptions was updated to include all EU nations, the Schengen Area, Australia, Montenegro, China, the Faroe Islands, the Hellenic Republic, South Korea, Monaco, New Zealand, and the UK, which lasted until 24-Oct.

On 1-Oct, Slovakia announced a State of Emergency which was set to last for 45 days. On 24-Oct, entered a partial lockdown, which was set to last until 1-Nov, but was extended until 14-Nov and then extended again until 29-Dec. These lockdowns only applied internally, as borders remained open.

Slovenia

Slovenia introduced a partial closure barring flights arriving from Italy, China, South Korea, Iran from entering the country on 10-Mar. This ban was extended to all flights on 17-Mar. Moreover, the government prohibited entry for non-essential reasons for third-country nationals on 31-Mar. On 14-May, the government of Slovenia lifted the blanket air travel ban, allowing flights from the European Union and third countries. Yet, the need for third country nationals to have essential reasons for entering Slovenia remained in place. Non-essential travel from third countries remained prohibited until 1-Oct.

Similarly to Malta, Slovenia issued a colored-list which would determine who could enter based on their country of residence’s incidence rate. Based on that list, entry from Australia, New Zealand, Serbia, South Korea, and Uruguay was permitted from 1-Oct until 26-Oct. On 26-Oct, the Slovenian National Institute of Public Health removed South Korea from that list. On 16-Nov, Slovenia added Rwanda, South Korea and Georgia, before removing the latter again on 23-Nov. On 25-Dec, Uruguay and South Korea were removed from the list of permitted countries of origin.

Spain

At the onset of the pandemic, Spain issued a partial closure, barring all air traffic between Spain and Italy beginning on 11-Mar. On 17-Mar, Spain issued another partial closure, ending all land traffic to and from the country, with the exception of citizens and residents, diplomatic staff and people demonstrating ‘causes of force majeure.’ Days later, on 23-Mar, these partial closures became a complete closure, as Spain allowed only residents and nationals of EU or Schengen member-states who were returning home, or cross-border workers, to enter the country.

Beginning on 15-May, this policy was made stricter, as only Spanish residents and nationals were allowed to enter. However, a week later, on 24-May, the policy was quickly reversed, and the complete closure again allowed residents and nationals of EU or Schengen member-states who were returning to their homes, or cross-border workers, to enter the country. Border closures were lifted on 30-June.

In the fall, cases surged in Spain, and beginning 1-Oct, Spain went into an internal national lockdown, which only allowed movement within the country for essential purposes. Spain did not close international borders.

Sweden

On 19-Mar, Sweden instituted a 30-day complete closure with exemptions for Swedish citizens and their family members, residents of Sweden or other EU member-states, residents of a European Economic Area state or Switzerland, or those with national visas from Sweden. On the same date, Sweden instated a visa ban affecting all foreign nationals outside of the EU. The complete closure was later extended to 15-May, and extended again to 15-Jun. On 2-Jul, Sweden announced it would be extending the closure yet again to 31-Aug but that it would ease restrictions, allowing residents from Algeria, Australia, Georgia, Japan, Canada, Morocco, New Zealand, Rwanda, South Korea, Thailand, Tunisia, Uruguay to enter the country. Serbia and Montenegro. Serbia and Montenegro were later removed from the list of exempted countries on 17-Jul. On 5-Aug, Algeria was also removed from the list in a further restriction to the closure. On 29-Oct, Sweden announced it would extend the ban until 22-Dec and would remove residents of Canada, Georgia, and Tunisia from the exemption list and begin allowing residents of Singapore to enter the country.

By Schengen Countries not in the EU:

Iceland

Iceland entered into a complete closure effective 20-Mar and lasting until 15-May with exceptions for nationals of EU member-states, members of the European Economic Area and European Free Trade Agreement and nationals of the UK. The complete closure was extended until 1-Jul, and added exceptions for students from nations outside the previously exempted nations. On 4-Nov, Iceland relaxed its complete to allow citizens of Andorra, Monaco, San Marino and Vatican City to enter the country.

Liechtenstein

The Swiss Federal Office of Public Health’s policies and recommendations are also propagated in Liechtenstein for coronavirus measures. Liechtenstein took a more relaxed approach to the pandemic, choosing to issue internal restrictions and to allow other countries, such as Austria, to close neighboring borders rather than issue their own closures.

Norway

Norway acted to prevent the spread of COVID-19 on 16-Mar with a complete closure exempting only citizens of Norway with long-term residence permits. On 1-Apr, Norway modified its complete closure to allow nationals of European Economic Area countries to enter Norway for work purposes. The complete closure was then extended through 20-Aug. On 15-Jun, the Norwegian government amended the policy allowing non-essential travel from Denmark. On 25-Jun, Norway announced its intent to allow travel from European countries on 15-Jul. On 25-Jul, Norway began allowing passengers arriving from Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK, Andorra, Bulgaria, Croatia, Luxembourg, Portugal, Romania, and Spain into the country.

Switzerland

On 13-Mar, Switzerland instituted a land border closure with Italy. On 17-Mar, a partial closure barring passengers arriving from Austria, France, Germany and Italy was in place. On 19-Mar, a visa ban went into effect, suspending all visa applications to Switzerland. On the same date, Switzerland issued a travel ban with exceptions for Swiss nationals, residents, and passengers arriving from an EU+ country. On 25-Mar, Switzerland added all non-Schengen area countries to its list of countries barred from entry, thus making it a complete closure. On 4-Apr, Switzerland restricted its closure and only citizens and residents were allowed to enter the country. On 11-May, restrictions were eased, allowing for family reunification for Swiss citizens and citizens of EU member-states in Switzerland. On 15-May, borders with Germany and Austria were opened for unmarried couples. On 15-Jun, EU+ countries were exempted from the restrictions.

Switzerland’s internal borders remained open throughout 2020 after 15-Jun. The only exception was a flight ban prohibiting flights from the United Kingdom from 21-Dec.

Conversely, entry from third countries was prohibited until 20-Jul. Throughout the rest of the year, Switzerland largely followed the EU recommendations on lifting restrictions for third countries. From 20-Jul, Switzerland allowed non-essential travel from Algeria, Australia, Bulgaria, Georgia, Japan, Canada, South Korea, Morocco, New Zealand, Rwanda, Thailand, Tunisia, and Uruguay. This list was further restricted on 8-Aug, 16-Aug, and 3-Nov.

By EU Countries not under Schengen:

Bulgaria

Bulgaria instituted a variety of travel policies in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. On 17-Mar, Bulgaria halted all international train travel. On 18-Mar, Bulgaria issued a partial closure based on travel history, stating that passengers arriving from Bangladesh, China, France, Germany, India, Iran, Ireland, Italy, South Korea, Maldives, Nepal, the Netherlands, Spain, Sri Lanka, Switzerland, or the UK are not allowed to enter Bulgaria, with the exception of Bulgarian nationals. Beginning on 1-Apr, only EU citizens were allowed to enter Bulgaria. From 23-Apr until 26-Apr, all land borders were closed with Turkey in the latest of Bulgaria’s closures.

From 31-Jul until 31-Aug, Bulgaria issued another partial closure, allowing nationals of the EU, the UK and the Schengen Agreement States (including San Marino, Andorra, Monaco and Vatican City), and their family members to enter, along with citizens of Albania, Australia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Canada, Georgia, Israel, Japan, Jordan. Kosovo, Kuwait, Moldova, Montenegro, Morocco, New Zealand, North Macedonia, the Republic of Korea, Rwanda, Serbia, Thailand, Tunisia, Uruguay, and Ukraine.

Croatia

On 10-Mar, Croatia suspended all air and ferry travel to and from Italy. This policy was soon expanded, as on 13-Mar, Croatia closed all borders until reevaluated on 18-Apr.

On 15-Sep and lasting until 2-Nov, Croatia instituted a partial closure of its borders, as it restricted all land border crossings with the exceptions of EU and Schengen Area nationals, even though Croatia is not in the Schengen Area itself. From 1-Dec until 31-Jan, Croatia again closed its borders to all non EU or Schengen Area nationals.

Cyprus

Cyprus instituted a complete closure on 15-Mar with exceptions for citizens and residents. The restriction was revised on 16-Mar requiring citizens, residents, students, and people who work in Cyprus to have a certificate of health proving they did not have COVID-19 for at least 4 days and to be quarantined for 14 days upon arrival. On 25-May, flights to Cyprus were suspended with an exception for repatriation flights. Flights to Cyprus reopened from 9-Jun to 19-Jun with a partial closure that exempted passengers flying from Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Israel, Lithuania, Malta, Norway, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia or Switzerland. Passengers from these countries needed to possess a negative COVID-19 tested within 3 days of arrival or be tested upon arrival.

On 25-Jun, Cyprus relaxed its partial closure to allow passengers arriving from Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland (Rep.), Israel, Italy, Jordan, South Korea (Rep.), Latvia, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland and United Arab Emirates. It also allowed family members of Cyprus nationals residing in Cyprus to enter the country.

By 23-Jul, Cyprus had further modified its closure to include passengers from Algeria, Andorra, Canada, China, Georgia, Japan, Macao, Malta, Morocco, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Rwanda, San Marino, Thailand, Tunisia, Uruguay, and Vatican City.

On 25-Oct, Cyprus was allowing passengers into the country from a select number of nations through their partial closure: Australia, Canada, China, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, Iceland, Ireland, Japan, South Korea, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Rwanda, San Marino, Serbia, Sweden, Thailand, UK, Uruguay, and Vatican City. It also continued to make exceptions for citizens, permanent residents, and family members of citizens and permanent residents. From 21-Dec, Cyprus kept a partial closure in place, allowing passengers from Australia, China, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, New Zealand, Norway, Rwanda, San Marino, Serbia, Singapore, Sweden, Thailand, UK, Uruguay, and Vatican City to enter the country.

Ireland

Ireland’s border response to the pandemic was primarily through visa restrictions. On 20-Mar, Ireland stopped accepting visas through 22-Jun, with the exception of EU nationals, diplomats, family members of Irish citizens, and transport personnel. From 22-Jun, Ireland relaxed its restrictions on visa services, allowing long stay, study, and emergency visa applications. Yet, issuance was limited to Emergency/Priority visas. On 10-Jul, Ireland stopped its short-stay visa waiver program, which primarily affected people from Bahrain, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, India, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Montenegro, Oman, China, Qatar, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.

Ireland began issuing decisions for long-term visa applications for the purposes of secondary, and post-secondary education, family reunification, and vocation on 21-Oct. Between 21-Dec and 22-Dec, Ireland put a 48-hour stop on flights from Great Britain.

Although Ireland did not institute international border closures or other immigration policies, it imposed several internal lockdowns throughout 2020 to limit movement within the nation.

Romania

On 9-Mar, Romania banned flights from Italy from entering the country in a partial closure , which was quickly expanded by 16-Mar when flights from China, Iran, Italy and South Korea were also denied entry. On 13-Mar, road borders with Hungary, Ukraine, Bulgaria and Moldova were closed as part of a partial land border closure. The partial closure was replaced by a complete closure with exceptions made only for Romanian citizens on 22-Mar. On 4-Apr, Romania issued a partial closure targeting land transport from Italy, Spain, France, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Swiss Confederation, UK, Northern Ireland, the Netherlands and Turkey. By May, commercial flights to Romania were still limited, but a partial closure targeting travel from Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Iran, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, the UK and the United States was in effect on 15-May.


Lukas Feddern is a research assistant (RA) and Portfolio Manager (PM) of EU+ countries for the COVID Border Accountability Project (COBAP) and is co-affiliated during his graduate studies with Konstanz University and University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf.

*Rachel Musetti was an RA and PM for the COVID Border Accountability Project (COBAP), covering the 2020 data for Estonia, Finland, Hungary, San Marino, Monaco, Lithuania, and the Netherlands; and the EU portfolio. She graduated recently from Emory University, majoring in Environmental Science and minoring in Sustainability Sciences with the hopes of working in the nonprofit sector.

*Amalia Gradie was an RA and PM for COBAP, covering the 2020 data for Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten (Dutch part), Denmark, Faroe Islands, Greenland, Costa Rica, Suriname, and Ireland; and the EU portfolio. She graduated recently from Emory University with a B.A. in Human Health and having minored in English.

Dr. Foteini Kalantzi is a collaborator with COBAP on EU policies and the A.G. Leventis Research Fellow at SEESOX, St Antony’s College, University of Oxford. Her work focuses on migration, diaspora politics, European borders, and Greek political affairs.

*These authors contributed equally.


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